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Dobrynya Nikitich-class icebreaker

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Ivan Kruzenstern showing the rounded tumblehome hull of the Dobrynya Nikitich-class icebreakers
Class overview
Name
BuildersAdmiralty Shipyard (Leningrad, USSR)
OperatorsVarious
Subclasses
  • 97 (icebreaker)
  • 97A (icebreaker)
  • 97K (icebreaker)
  • 97E (icebreaker)
  • 97AP (patrol icebreaker)
  • 97P (patrol ship)
  • 97D (hydrographic survey vessel)
  • 97B (hydrographic survey vessel)
  • 97N (research vessel)
Built1960–1981
In service1960–present
Completed32
Active7
Laid up1
Lost1
Scrapped22
Preserved1
General characteristics [1]
TypeIcebreaker
Displacement
  • 2,935 t (2,889 long tons)
  • 3,350 t (3,300 long tons) (97AP)[2]
Length67.7 m (222 ft)
Beam18.1 m (59 ft)
Draught
  • 5.35 metres (17.6 ft)
  • 6.3 m (21 ft) (97AP)[2]
Installed power3 × 13D100 (3 × 1,800 hp)
PropulsionDiesel–electric; three shafts (2 × 2,400 hp + 1,600 hp)
Speed14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph) (maximum)
Range
  • 5,500 nautical miles (10,200 km; 6,300 mi)
  • 6,700 nautical miles (12,400 km; 7,700 mi) (97AP)[2]
Endurance17 days
Crew42
Armament
  • 1 × twin 57 mm ZIF-31-B (97 and 97AP)
  • 1 × twin 25 mm 2M-3M [ru] (97 and 97AP)

Dobrynya Nikitich class, also known by its Soviet designation Project 97, is a diverse series of diesel–electric icebreakers and other icebreaking vessels built in the Soviet Union. In total, 32 vessels were built in various configurations for both civilian and naval service in the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s, and several remain in service in Russia as of 2024.

Western sources refer to the Project 97 vessels using two different names: Dobrynya Nikitich class for the various icebreaker variants and more heavily-modified derivative designs, and Ivan Susanin class specifically for Project 97P patrol ships.[3][4][5][6]

Background and construction

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In the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union began developing a new diesel–electric icebreaker design that could meet the needs of both civilian and naval operators. At the time, the merchant marine relied largely on ageing steam-powered icebreakers, many of which had been built during the Imperial Russia era and would reach the end of their operational life in the coming years. In addition, the Soviet Border Troops possessed just one ice-capable vessel for patrolling the country's northern border, Project 52K patrol ship Purga, which had been laid down already in 1938 but did not enter service until 1957.[1]

Technical development of the new icebreakers was entrusted to Leningrad-based Central Design Bureau No. 15, today known as Central Design Bureau "Iceberg" and part of the state-owned United Shipbuilding Corporation, which based the hull lines on the Swedish-built steam-powered icebreaker Eisbär which Germany had handed over to the Soviet Union as war reparations in 1946. Discussions during technical meetings sometimes became heated as naval architects tried to include both civilian and naval requirements into the design. One of the sources of disagreement was the bow propeller which was considered essential for icebreaking operations in the Baltic Sea and other non-Arctic waters but susceptible to damage in heavier Arctic ice conditions.[1]

Once the final design had been developed, the construction was awarded to the Leningrad-based Admiralty Shipyard. The first series, which consisted of largely similar triple-screw icebreakers, was built at a rapid rate: the hulls were assembled side by side on the slipway and launched at a technical readiness of 60–80%. In 1960–1971, the shipyard delivered up to three vessels annually, often in different configurations, while simultaneously implementing various technical improvements devised during the operation of the first vessels of the series. The second series with eight twin-screw Project 97P patrol ships and one research vessel was built in 1973–1981.[1]

With a total of 32 vessels built in various configurations over more than two decades, Project 97 and its subclasses are the largest and longest-running series of icebreakers and icebreaking vessels built in the world. With the exception of nuclear-powered icebreakers, they were also the only domestically-built post-war icebreakers in the Soviet Union and later Russia until the construction of Project 21900 icebreakers in the late 2000s.[7]

General characteristics

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With the exception of few heavily-modified variants, all Dobrynya Nikitich-class icebreakers had a length overall of 67.7 metres (222 ft) and a beam of 18.1 metres (59 ft). Fully laden, the vessels drew between 5.35 and 6.3 metres (17.6 and 20.7 ft) of water corresponding to a full load displacement ranging from 2,935 to 3,350 tonnes (2,889 to 3,297 long tons). The later patrol ship and research vessel variants were somewhat larger than the early icebreakers. The hull form, derived from an older Swedish-built icebreaker, featured a round midship with pronounced tumblehome and practically no flat bottom or sides. While the curved hull lines resulted in low resistance and high maneuverability in ice, the vessels were very uncomfortable in open water due to excessive rolling.[1]

All ships shared the same diesel–electric power plant with three direct current (DC) main diesel generators. The 1,800-horsepower (1,300 kW) 10-cylinder 13D100 (Russian: 13Д100) two-stroke opposed-piston main diesel engines were in fact reverse-engineered Fairbanks Morse 38 8-1/8 diesel engines manufactured by the Malyshev Factory in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The engines were coupled to double-armature DC generators (2 × 625 kWe) that provided power to 1,760 kW (2,400 hp) PG-147 (Russian: ПГ-147) DC propulsion motors driving two 3.5-metre (11 ft) fixed pitch propellers in the stern and a 1,175 kW (1,600 hp) PG-146 (Russian: ПГ-146) DC motor driving a 2.7-metre (9 ft) propeller in the bow.[8] During initial icebreaking trials, the icebreakers were able to break 70 to 75 centimetres (28 to 30 in) thick level ice with a 25-centimetre (9.8 in) snow layer on top at very slow but continuous speed.[1]

Variants

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Project 97

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Three Project 97 icebreakers were built for the Soviet Navy: Dobrynya Nikitich for the Northern Fleet,[9] Purga for the Baltic Fleet,[10] and Vyuga for the Pacific Fleet.[11] While initially armed with 57 mm and 25 mm deck guns, the vessels were later disarmed.[1]

Name(s) Namesake(s) Yard number Laid down Launched Completed In service Status or fate Image Ref
Dobrynya Nikitich (Russian: Добрыня Никитич) Dobrynya Nikitich 760 20 December 1959 10 May 1960 31 December 1960 1960–1998 Broken up [9]
Purga (Russian: Пурга) Russian for "blizzard" 761 31 May 1960 10 December 1960 23 October 1961 1961–2012 Broken up "Purga" icebreaker in front [10]
Vyuga (Russian: Вьюга) Russian for "blizzard" 763 5 May 1961 20 January 1962 16 July 1962 1962–1991 Broken up [11]

Project 97A

[edit]

The series of unarmed icebreakers built for the Ministry of the Maritime Fleet of the Soviet Union, Project 97A, is the most numerous variant of the Project 97 family with twelve vessels built between 1961 and 1971. While initially named simply Ledokol (Russian: Ледокол, romanized: icebreaker) followed by a running number, in 1966 they were given individual names to honor famous Imperial Russian and Soviet polar explorers.[1]

As of 2024, two Project 97A icebreakers remain in service with Rosmorport's North-Western Basin Branch in the Baltic Sea: Ivan Kruzenstern and Semyon Dezhnev.[12][13]

Name(s) Namesake(s) IMO number Yard number Laid down Launched Completed In service Status or fate Image Ref
Vasiliy Pronchishchev (Russian: Василий Прончищев; 1966–1989)
Ledokol-1 (Russian: Ледокол-1; 1961–1966) 		Vasili Pronchishchev 6500765 762 13 December 1960 28 April 1961 30 December 1961 1961–1989 Broken up [14][15]
Afanasy Nikitin (Russian: Афанасий Никитин; 1966–1995)
Ledokol-2 (Russian: Ледокол-2; 1962–1966) 		Afanasy Nikitin 6500791 764 1 November 1961 31 May 1962 1 November 1962 1962–1995 Broken up [16][17]
Khariton Laptev (Russian: Харитон Лаптев; 1966–1996)
Ledokol-3 (Russian: Ледокол-3; 1962–1966) 		Khariton Laptev 6500806 765 10 February 1962 11 August 1962 25 December 1962 1962–1996 Broken up [18][19]
Poyar (Russian: Пояр; 1988)
Vasiliy Poyarkov (Russian: Василий Поярков; 1966–1988)
Ledokol-4 (Russian: Ледокол-4; 1963–1966) 		Vassili Poyarkov 6500777 766 13 August 1962 16 March 1963 26 July 1963 1963–1988 Broken up [20][21]
Yerofey Khabarov (Russian: Ерофей Хабаров; 1966–1993)
Ledokol-5 (Russian: Ледокол-5; 1963–1966) 		Yerofey Khabarov 6500789 767 5 April 1963 24 August 1963 7 December 1963 1963–1993 Broken up [22][23]
Ivan Kruzenstern (Russian: Иван Крузенштерн; 1966–present)
Ledokol-6 (Russian: Ледокол-6; 1964–1966) 		Adam Johann von Krusenstern 6501496 768 20 January 1964 29 April 1964 27 October 1964 1964–present In service [12][24][25]
Vlad (1988)
Vladimir Rusanov (Russian: Владимир Русанов; 1966–1988)
Ledokol-7 (Russian: Ледокол-7; 1964–1966) 		Vladimir Rusanov 6508171 769 30 March 1964 25 July 1964 28 December 1964 1964–1988 Broken up [26][27]
Semyon Chelyuskin (Russian: Семён Челюскин; 1966–1988)
Ledokol-8 (Russian: Ледокол-8; 1965–1966) 		Semyon Chelyuskin 6514522 770 12 December 1964 28 February 1965 11 August 1965 1965–1988 Broken up [28][29]
Yuriy Lisyanskiy (Russian: Юрий Лисянский; 1966–2021)
Ledokol-9 (Russian: Ледокол-9; 1965–1966) 		Yuri Lisyansky 6521850 772 30 June 1965 31 August 1965 30 December 1965 1965–2021 To be broken up [30][31][32]
Fyodor Litke (Russian: Фёдор Литке) Friedrich von Lütke 7020085 780 12 January 1970 29 July 1970 14 December 1970 1970–2013 Broken up [33][34]
Ivan Moskvitin (Russian: Иван Москвитин) Ivan Moskvitin 7117383 781 2 November 1970 25 March 1971 1 September 1971 1971–1997 Broken up [35][36]
Semyon Dezhnev (Russian: Семён Дежнёв) Semyon Dezhnev 7119446 782 30 March 1971 31 August 1971 28 December 1971 1971–present In service [13][37]

Project 97K

[edit]

Two unarmed Project 97A icebreakers built for the Soviet Navy, Ilya Muromets for the Pacific Fleet[38] and Buran for the Baltic Fleet,[39] are sometimes considered as a separate subclass, Project 97K.[1]

As of 2024, Buran remains in service with the Baltic Fleet.[39]

Name(s) Namesake(s) IMO number Yard number Laid down Launched Completed In service Status or fate Image Ref
Ilya Muromets (Russian: Илья Муромец) Ilya Muromets 7052272 771 10 March 1965 30 June 1965 28 December 1965 1965–1993 Broken up [38]
Buran (Russian: Буран) Russian for "blizzard" 4622337 773 21 January 1966 16 May 1966 24 October 1966 1966–present In service [39]

Project 97E

[edit]

Project 97E was an unarmed icebreaker variant built for East Germany. The vessel, Stephan Jantzen, was operated by the state-owned shipping company Bagger-, Bugsier- und Bergungsreederei Rostock (BBB) until the German reunification in 1990 and Wasser- und Schifffahrtsamt Stralsund until 2005.[1] After decommissioning, the ship went through a number of owners before ending up as a museum ship in Rostock.[40]

Name(s) Namesake(s) IMO number Yard number Laid down Launched Completed In service Status or fate Image Ref
Stephan Jantzen (1967–2005)
Stephan (2005–2006)
King Ice (2006–2008)
Stephan Jantzen (2008–2012)
König Ludwig II Von Bayern (2012–2013)
Stephan Jantzen (2013–present) 		Stephan Jantzen [de]
Ludwig II of Bavaria 		7117486 775 15 September 1966 30 December 1966 30 November 1967 1967–2005 Museum ship [41][42]

Project 97AP

[edit]

Project 97AP (Russian: 97АП) was an armed patrol icebreaker variant built for the Soviet Navy. Built with increased autonomy time and operating range, they were intended to patrol the western and eastern ends of the Northern Sea Route. The armament was later dismantled.[1]

Peresvet, which was previously assigned to the Northern Fleet, was decommissioned in 2011 and later scrapped.[43][1] Sadko, assigned to the Pacific Fleet, was expended as target during the Umka-2022 military drills in September 2022.[44][45][46]

Name(s) Namesake(s) Yard number Laid down Launched Completed In service Status or fate Image Ref
Sadko (Russian: Садко) Sadko 777 20 June 1967 28 June 1968 6 November 1968 1968–2022 Expended as target[45][46] [44]
Peresvet (Russian: Пересвет) Alexander Peresvet 778 10 July 1968 29 January 1969 28 July 1970 1970–2011 Broken up [43]

Project 97D

[edit]

Project 97D (Russian: 97Д) was a hydrographic survey vessel variant built for the Ministry of the Maritime Fleet of the Soviet Union to survey the Northern Sea Route. While otherwise nearly identical to baseline Project 97 icebreakers, these two vessels were fitted with additional scientific facilities, echosounders to conduct hydrographic survey, and accommodation for an additional 14 personnel. However, they were also used for icebreaking operations from time to time.[47]

Name(s) Namesake(s) IMO number Yard number Laid down Launched Completed In service Status or fate Image Ref
Prabhavi (1997)
Pyotr Pakhtusov (Russian: Пётр Пахтусов; 1975–1997)
Mendeleev (Russian: Менделеев; 1971–1975)
Pyotr Pakhtusov (Russian: Пётр Пахтусов; 1966–1971)
Ledokol-10 (Russian: Ледокол-10; 1966) 		Pyotr Pakhtusov
Dmitri Mendeleev 		6614358 774 21 May 1966 8 August 1966 30 December 1966 1966–1997 Broken up [48][49]
Georgiy Sedov (Russian: Георгий Седов) Georgiy Sedov 7117137 776 3 January 1967 15 June 1967 30 December 1967 1967–1992 Broken up [50][51]

Derivative designs

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Project 97B

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Vladimir Kavrayskiy, the sole Project 97B hydrographic survey vessel

Project 97B (Russian: 97Б) was a hydrographic survey vessel variant built for the Hydrographic Office of the Soviet Navy. Unlike the preceding Project 97D built for civilian service, Project 97B was a more radical departure from the original Project 97 icebreaker design with increased length and displacement to increase range and endurance, as well as an enlarged deckhouse to accommodate more personnel on board.[52]

As of 2024, Vladimir Kavrayskiy remains in service with the Northern Fleet as the stationary barracks ship PKZ-86 in Murmansk.[53]

Project 97P

[edit]
Main article: Ivan Susanin-class patrol ship
Imeni XXV syezda KPSS, one of eight Project 97P icebreaking patrol ships built for the Soviet Navy and Soviet Border Troops

Project 97P (Russian: 97П) was developed as a response to the renewed interest of the Soviet Navy and Soviet Border Troops on icebreaking patrol ships after United States Coast Guard and Canadian Coast Guard icebreakers began appearing more frequently near the country's northern maritime borders. New icebreaking patrol ships were needed because existing Soviet naval vessels could not operate in ice-covered waters and large icebreakers, in addition to being unarmed and operated by civilians, could not be distracted from their primary mission of escorting merchant ships. Central Design Bureau "Iceberg" selected Project 97 as the design basis following positive operational experience and the difficulties associated with developing a new design.[54]

As of 2024, four Project 97P patrol ships remain in service: Ivan Susanin with the Pacific Fleet[55] and Ruslan with the Northern Fleet,[56] both with their armaments removed,[54] and Neva and Volga with the FSB Border Service.[57][58][59]

Project 97N

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Otto Schmidt, the only Project 97N research vessel

Project 97N (Russian: 97Н), the final variant developed based on the Project 97 icebreaker design, was a research vessel commissioned by the State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Control of the Soviet Union to conduct scientific research in the poorly-studied transition zone between open water and the polar ice pack. In addition to adding extensive scientific facilities and additional accommodation, the hull lines were given more pronounced sheer and flare to reduce the likelihood of waves breaking over the bow.[60]

The only Project 97N ship, Otto Schmidt, was in service in 1979–1991, and was sold for scrap in 1996.[60]

References

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dobrynya Nikitich class icebreakers.
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kuznetsov 2009.
  2. ^ a b c "Патрульные дизель-электрические ледоколы, проект 97АП". CDB Iceberg. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  3. ^ "Admiralty Shipyard 194 Leningrad, USSR <Sanitized>" (PDF). CIA.gov. 28 March 2003 [August 1966]. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  4. ^ Baker, Arthur J., III (October 1982), "Their Ship Types", Proceedings, vol. 108, no. 10, U.S. Naval Institute{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ "Ivan Susanin Class (Project 97P Class) Russian Icebreaker". OE Data Integration Network. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
  6. ^ Polmar 1986.
  7. ^ "RosMorPort takes delivery of diesel-electric icebreaker Moskva built by Baltiysky Zavod". PortNews. 11 December 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  8. ^ Burkov, A.F.; Verevkin, V.F. (2018), Проектирование и расчет элементов пропульсивных комплексов с гребными электрическими установками (PDF) (in Russian), Far Eastern Federal University, pp. 17–18
  9. ^ a b "Добрыня Никитич". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  10. ^ a b "Пурга". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  11. ^ a b "Вьюга". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  12. ^ a b "Ivan Kruzenshtern (6501496)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  13. ^ a b "Semyon Dezhnev (7119446)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  14. ^ "Vasiliy Pronchishchev (6500765)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  15. ^ "Василий Прончищев". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  16. ^ "Afanasy Nikitin (6500791)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  17. ^ "Афанасий Никитин". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  18. ^ "Khariton Laptev (6500806)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  19. ^ "Харитон Лаптев". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  20. ^ "Vasiliy Poyarkov (6500777)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  21. ^ "Пояр". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  22. ^ "Yerofey Khabarov (6500789)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  23. ^ "Ерофей Хабаров". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  24. ^ "Иван Крузенштерн". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  25. ^ "Ivan Kruzenstern (640380)". Register of ships. Russian Maritime Register of Shipping. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
  26. ^ "Vlad (6508171)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  27. ^ "Vlad". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  28. ^ "Semyon Chelyuskin (6514522)". Sea-web. S&P Global.
  29. ^ "Семён Челюскин". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  30. ^ "Yuriy Lisyanskiy (6521850)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  31. ^ "Юрий Лисянский". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  32. ^ "Росморпорт готов заплатить до 26 млн рублей за утилизацию ледокола «Юрий Лисянский»" (in Russian). PortNews. 24 January 2023. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
  33. ^ "Fyodor Litke (7020085)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  34. ^ "Фёдор Литке". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  35. ^ "Ivan Moskvitin (7117383)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  36. ^ "Иван Москвитин". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  37. ^ "Семён Дежнёв". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  38. ^ a b "Илья Муромец". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  39. ^ a b c "Буран". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  40. ^ "Verein rettet legendären Eisbrecher "Stephan Jantzen"" (in German). Nordkurier. 4 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  41. ^ "Stephan Jantzen (7117486)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  42. ^ "Stephan Jantzen". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  43. ^ a b "Пересвет". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  44. ^ a b "Садко". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  45. ^ a b @AkerArctic (September 18, 2022). "Whoever (else) keeps track of Russian #icebreaking fleet may strike one of the few remaining Project 97 #icebreakers from the list: looks like the 1968-built Sadko was expended as a target in the recent Umka-2022 military drills" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  46. ^ a b "СМ-573". Fleetphoto. 7 October 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  47. ^ Kuznetsov 2009, pp. 21–22.
  48. ^ "Prabhavi (6614358)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  49. ^ "Prabhavi". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  50. ^ "Georgiy Sedov (7117137)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  51. ^ "Георгий Седов". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  52. ^ Kuznetsov 2009, p. 22.
  53. ^ "ПКЗ-86". FleetPhoto. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  54. ^ a b Kuznetsov 2009, pp. 22–29.
  55. ^ "Иван Сусанин". FleetPhoto. Archived from the original on 1 August 2019.
  56. ^ "Руслан". FleetPhoto. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019.
  57. ^ "Нева". FleetPhoto. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019.
  58. ^ "Volga (8640246)". Sea-web. S&P Global. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  59. ^ "Волга". FleetPhoto. Archived from the original on 18 February 2019.
  60. ^ a b Kuznetsov 2009, pp. 29–32.

Further reading

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